Congressional Procedure, Additional Resources, Chapter 7

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Congressional Procedure
A Practical Guide to the Legislative Process in the U.S. Congress: The House of Representatives and Senate Explained
By Richard A. Arenberg

Additional Resources

Pocket Constitution

Previous: Chapter 6 – Resolving Differences Between the House and Senate

Chapter 7 – The Congressional Budget and Other Special Cases

A. Introduction
B. 1974 Budget Act
C. The Congressional Budget Resolution
D. Reconciliation Bills
E. The “Byrd Rule”
F. PAYGO
G. Authorizations
H. Appropriations
I. Government Shutdown
J. Debt Ceiling
K. Earmarks
L. Other Fast-Track Legislation
M. Congressional Review Act
N. The War Powers Resolution
O. Impoundment and Rescissions
P. Line-Item Veto

Chapter 7. The Congressional Budget and Other Special Cases
7. A. Introduction

• Pocket Constitution
• Article I, Section 7, Constitution
• Article I, Section 8, Constitution
• “The Federal Budget Process,” TheCapitol.Net
• Budget Authority (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation / Cardinals of Congress (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Authorization / Authorization Act (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• “Fast-Track Procedures” (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• President’s Budget (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Deficit / Budget Surplus (CongressionalGlossary.com)

• Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, CRS Report 98-721 (38-page PDF)
• Expedited or “Fast-Track” Legislative Procedures, CRS Report RS20234 (7-page PDF)
• “Fast Track” Legislative Procedures Governing Congressional Consideration of a Defense Base Closure and Realignment (BRAC) Commission Report, CRS Report R43102 (12-page PDF)

• “Fast Track” Parliamentary Procedures of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, CRS Report RS22985 (8-page PDF)
• Budget of the United States Government, GPO
• Budget, Senate
• Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, Office of the Legislative Counsel of the U.S. House of Representatives (85-page PDF)

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7. B. 1974 Budget Act

• Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
• Budget Authority (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Resolution (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation / Cardinals of Congress (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Authorization / Authorization Act (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Deficit / Budget Surplus (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Impoundments (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Reconciliation / Reconciliation Instruction (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, CRS Report 98-721 (38-page PDF)
• The Federal Budget Process, TheCapitol.Net
• Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

• Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 (Pub.L. 93–344, 31 U.S.C. § 1105) – Congress.gov – GPO (141-page PDF) – Legal Information Institute (LII) (Cornell Law School) – Historical Highlights (House)
• President’s Budget, OMB
• Budget of the United States Government, GovInfo
• Budget of the United States Government, GPO
• “What is a vote-a-rama?” by Keith Hennessey
• “Vote-aramas” 1977-Present, Senate

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7. C. The Congressional Budget Resolution

• “The Federal Budget Process,” TheCapitol.Net
• Senate Budget Committee
• House Budget Committee
• Budget Authority (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Resolution (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Deficit / Budget Surplus (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Fiscal Year / Prior Year (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Outlay (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Reconciliation / Reconciliation Instruction (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Expenditure / Tax Expenditure (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: Timing of Legislative Action, CRS Report RL30458 (19-page PDF)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: The Senate’s “Byrd Rule”, CRS Report RL30862 (45-page PDF)
• Congressional Budget Resolutions: Historical Information, CRS Report RL30297 (47-page PDF)
• Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 (Pub.L. 93–344, 31 U.S.C. § 1105), LII

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7. D. Reconciliation Bills

• Budget Resolution (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Direct Spending / Mandatory Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Discretionary / Discretionary Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Reconciliation / Reconciliation Instruction (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: Timing of Legislative Action, CRS Report RL30458 (19-page PDF)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: The Senate’s “Byrd Rule”, CRS Report RL30862 (45-page PDF)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: Stages of Consideration, CRS Report R44058 (16-page PDF)
• The Economic Effects of Financing a Large and Permanent Increase in Government Spending, Congressional Budget Office, CBO Working Paper 57201, March 2021 (42-page PDF)

• The Budget Reconciliation Process: House and Senate Procedures, CRS Report RL33030 (122-page PDF)
• Deficit Impact of Reconciliation Legislation Enacted in 1990, 1993, 1997, and 2006, CRS Report RS22098 (8-page PDF)

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7. E. The “Byrd Rule”

• Byrd Rule (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Point of Order (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Reconciliation / Reconciliation Instruction (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget Deficit / Budget Surplus (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Office of the Parliamentarian, Senate
• 2 U.S. Code § 644 – Extraneous matter in reconciliation legislation, LII

• “It was never foreseen that the Budget Reform Act would be used….” The Budget Reconciliation Process: The Senate’s “Byrd Rule”, CRS Report RL30862 (45-page PDF )
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: Stages of Consideration, CRS Report R44058 (16-page PDF)
• The Budget Reconciliation Process: Timing of Legislative Action, CRS Report RL30458 (19-page PDF)

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7. F. PAYGO

• Budget Deficit / Budget Surplus (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Direct Spending / Mandatory Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Discretionary / Discretionary Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Pay-as-You-Go (PAYGO) (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Revenues (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• PAYGO, Office of Management and Budget
• The Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010: Summary and Legislative History, CRS Report R41157 (30-page PDF)
• The Statutory PAYGO Process for Budget Enforcement: 1991-2002, CRS Report R41005 (51-page PDF)
• Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010 (Pub. L. 111-139), 2 U.S.C. 20A, GPO
• Sequestration, CBO
• The Economic Effects of Financing a Large and Permanent Increase in Government Spending, Congressional Budget Office, CBO Working Paper 57201, March 2021 (42-page PDF)

• Budget “Sequestration” and Selected Program Exemptions and Special Rules, CRS Report R42050 (35-page PDF)
• Sequestration as a Budget Enforcement Process: Frequently Asked Questions, CRS Report R42972 (9-page PDF)
• What is PAYGO? The Tax Policy Center
• What is PAYGO? The Peter G. Peterson Foundation

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7. G. Authorizations

“…authorizations are like a glass and appropriations are the milk that fills that glass.” Ch. 7.G. Authorizations, in Congressional Procedure.
• Appropriation / Cardinals of Congress (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Authorization / Authorization Act (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Entitlement Authority / Entitlement Program (CongressionalGlossary.com)

• “Defense Authorization and Appropriations Bills: FY1961-FY2021,” CRS Report 98-756 (50-page PDF)
• Frequently Asked Questions About CBO Cost Estimates, CBO

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7. H. Appropriations

“…authorizations are like a glass and appropriations are the milk that fills that glass.” Ch. 7.G. Authorizations, in Congressional Procedure.
• Pocket Constitution
• Congressional Leadership and Committees
• Constitution, Article I, Section 7
• Constitution Article I, Section 9
• House Committee on Appropriations
• Senate Committee on Appropriations
• Appropriation / Cardinals of Congress (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Authorization / Authorization Act (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Blue-Slip Resolution / Star Print (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Conferees / Managers / Instruct Conferees (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Discretionary / Discretionary Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Marking Up A Bill / Markup (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Obligation (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Omnibus Bill (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Privilege / Privileged Questions / Question of Privilege (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Regular Appropriations / Supplemental Appropriations / Continuing Resolutions (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Simple Resolution (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Supplemental Appropriation (CongressionalGlossary.com)

• The Federalist No. 58, Avalon Project
• Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
• Regular Appropriations Bills: Terms of Initial Consideration and Amendment in the House, FY1996-FY2015, CRS Report R42933 (32-page PDF)
• Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and Recent Practices, CRS Report R42647 (38-page PDF)
• “The House Appropriations Process: Opportunities for Member Participation,” CRS Report R47031 (17-page PDF)
• Appropriations and Budget, Congress.gov
• The Congressional Appropriations Process: An Introduction, CRS Report R42388 (28-page PDF)
• Disaster Relief Funding and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations, CRS Report R40708 (33-page PDF)
• Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data, CRS Report RL33226 (19-page PDF)

• An Examination of Federal Disaster Relief Under the Budget Control Act, CRS Report R42352 (24-page PDF)
• Offsets, Supplemental Appropriations, and the Disaster Relief Fund: FY1990-FY2013, CRS Report R42458 (25-page PDF)
• Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and Recent Practices, CRS Report R42647 (38-page PDF)

• “The Appropriations Process: A Brief Overview,” CRS Report R47106 (17-page PDF)
• Continuing Resolutions: CRs in a Nutshell, from OMB and Treasury (43-page PDF)
• Automatic Continuing Resolutions: Background and Overview of Recent Proposals, CRS Report R41948 (24-page PDF)
• “Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and Practices,” CRS Report R46595 (37-page PDF)
• Entitlements and Appropriated Entitlements in the Federal Budget Process, CRS Report RS20129 (6-page PDF)
• The Budget Resolution and Spending Legislation, CRS Report R40472 (14-page PDF)
• Congressional Budget Resolutions: Consideration and Amending in the Senate, CRS Report R40665 (11-page PDF)

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7. I. Government Shutdown

• Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects, CRS Report RL34680 (49-page PDF)
• Antideficiency Act, GAO

• CRS Resources on the FY2014 Funding Gap, Shutdown, and Status of Appropriations, CRS Report R43250 (9-page PDF)
• Preventing Federal Government Shutdowns: Proposals for an Automatic Continuing Resolution, CRS Report RL30339 (18-page PDF)
• Antideficiency Act, Pub.L. 97–258, 31 U.S.C. § 1341, LII
• Government shutdowns in the United States, Wikipedia

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7. J. Debt Ceiling

• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Federal Fund Accounts (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Obligation (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Public Debt / Debt Ceiling / Debt Limit (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Statutory Limit on the Public Debt / Budget Control Act of 2011 (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• The Debt Limit: History and Recent Increases, CRS Report RL31967 (48-page PDF)
• The Economic Effects of Financing a Large and Permanent Increase in Government Spending, Congressional Budget Office, CBO Working Paper 57201, March 2021 (42-page PDF)
• 31 U.S. Code § 3101 – Public debt limit, LII
• 31 U.S. Code § 3101 – Public debt limit, GPO

• A Short History of US Credit Defaults, Mises.org
• National debt of the United States, Debt Clock
• Deficits and Debt: Economic Effects and Other Issues, CRS Report R44383 (16-page PDF)
• Foreign Holdings of Federal Debt, CRS Report RS22331 (12-page PDF)
• Has the U.S. Government Ever “Defaulted”? CRS Report R44704 (29-page PDF)

• The Federal Government Debt: Its Size and Economic Significance, CRS Report RL31590 (18-page PDF)
• Debt Limit Legislation: The House “Gephardt Rule”, CRS Report RL31913 (17-page PDF)
• The Debt Limit Since 2011, CRS Report R43389 (44-page PDF)
• Budget Control Act of 2011 (Pub. L. 112-25), GPO (29-page PDF)

• How Treasury Issues Debt, CRS Report R40767 (27-page PDF)
• “Research Update: United States of America Long-Term Rating Lowered To ‘AA+’ On Political Risks And Rising Debt Burden; Outlook Negative,” August 5, 2011, S&P
• “Clearing the Air on the Debt Limit,” CRS Report R45011 (33-page PDF)
• Debt Limit, Treasury Department

• Interactive: Recent History of the Debt Limit, Bipartisan Policy Center

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7. K. Earmarks

• Appropriation Act / Appropriation Bill / Continuing Resolution / Continuing Appropriations (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Appropriated Entitlement (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Discretionary / Discretionary Spending (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Earmarking / Earmarks / Miscellaneous Tariff Bills (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Expenditure / Tax Expenditure (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Earmarks in Appropriation Acts: FY1994, FY1996, FY1998, FY2000, FY2002, FY2004, FY2005, CRS Memorandum, January 26, 2006 (56-page PDF)
• Earmark Disclosure Rules in the House: Member and Committee Requirements, CRS Report RS22866 (9-page PDF)
• Earmark Disclosure Rules in the Senate: Member and Committee Requirements, CRS Report RS22867 (11-page PDF)
• “Lifting the Earmark Moratorium: Frequently Asked Questions,” CRS Report R45429 (12-page PDF)
• “House Committees Release Guidance for Transportation Earmarks,” CRS Insight IN11647 (6-page PDF)

• Earmarks Disclosed by Congress: FY2008-FY2010 Regular Appropriations Bills, CRS Report R40976 (28-page PDF)
• “Federal Deficits, Growing Debt, and the Economy in the Wake of COVID-19,” CRS Report R46729 (24-page PDF)
• “A National Disgrace: The federal budget process threatens America’s future.” By John Steele Gordon, City Journal, February 19, 2021
• Congressional Pig Book, Citizens Against Government Waste
• “The Congressional Earmark Ban: the Real Bridge to Nowhere,” Commentary by Steven C. LaTourette, Roll Call, July 30, 2014
• Earmarks: Office of Management and Budget, Library of Congress

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7. L. Other Fast-Track Legislation

• “Fast-Track Procedures” (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Expedited Procedures Governing Senate Consideration of Legislation Waiving a Restriction Related to the Military Service of the Secretary of Defense, CRS Insight IN10629 (3-page PDF )
• “Expedited Procedures in the House: Variations Enacted into Law,” CRS Report RL30599 (20-page PDF)
• “National Emergencies Act: Expedited Procedures in the House and Senate,” CRS Report R46567 (22-page PDF)
• “Exceptions to the Rules: The Politics of Filibuster Limitations in the U.S. Senate,” by Molly E. Reynolds, Amazon

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7. M. Congressional Review Act

• The Congressional Review Act (CRA) (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Point of Order (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• The Congressional Review Act: Frequently Asked Questions, CRS Report R43992 (33-page PDF)
• Agency Final Rules Submitted on or After June 13, 2016, May Be Subject to Disapproval by the 115th Congress, CRS Insight IN10437 (5-page PDF)

• “Congressional Review Act Issues for the 117th Congress: The Lookback Mechanism and Effects of Disapproval,” CRS Report R46690 (20-page PDF)
• “The Congressional Review Act (CRA): A Brief Overview,” CRS In Focus IF10023 (5-page PDF)
• Congressional Review Act (5 U.S.C. §§801-808), LII
• Congressional Review Act, GAO

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7. N. The War Powers Resolution

• Pocket Constitution
• Constitution, Article I, Section 8
• Constitution, Article II, Section 2
• “Fast-Track Procedures” (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• War Powers, Law Library of Congress
• P.L. 107-40 – Authorization for Use of Military Force, GPO

• Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications, CRS Report RL31133 (120-page PDF)
• Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy In Brief, CRS Report R45122 (21-page PDF)
• Presidential References to the 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force in Publicly Available Executive Actions and Reports to Congress, CRS Memorandum (45-page PDF)
• Costs of Major U.S. Wars, CRS Report RS22926 (10-page PDF)
• “War Powers Resolution: Expedited Procedures in the House and Senate,” CRS Report R47603 (24-page PDF)
• 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force: Issues Concerning Its Continued Application, CRS Report R43983 (23-page PDF)

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7. O. Impoundment and Rescissions

• Deferral (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Impoundments (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Rescission (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, CRS Report 98-721 (38-page PDF)
• The Federal Budget Process, TheCapitol.Net
• Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
• Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 (Pub.L. 93–344, 31 U.S.C. § 1105) – Congress.gov – GPO (141-page PDF) – Legal Information Institute (LII) (Cornell Law School) – Historical Highlights (House)
• The Federal Budget Process 2E
• Antideficiency Act, GAO
• Impoundment Control Act: Use and Impact of Rescission Procedures, GAO-10-320T: Dec. 16, 2009, GAO
• Across-the-Board Rescissions in Appropriations Acts: Overview and Recent Practices, CRS Report R43234 (23-page PDF)
• Rescission Actions Since 1974: Review and Assessment of the Record, CRS Report RL33869 (34-page PDF)
• Item Veto and Expanded Impoundment Proposals, CRS Issue Brief IB89148 (22-page PDF)
• FY2018 Defense Budget Request: The Basics, CRS Report R44866 (21-page PDF)

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7. P. Line-Item Veto

• Line Item Veto (Item Veto) (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• Rescission (CongressionalGlossary.com)
• A Presidential Item Veto, CRS Report RS21991 (8-page PDF)

• Line Item Veto: A Constitutional Analysis of Recent Proposals, CRS Report RL33365 (19-page PDF)
• Item Veto and Expanded Impoundment Proposals, CRS Issue Brief IB89148 (22-page PDF)
• Line item veto: June 25, 1998 – YouTube
• Line Item Veto Act Unconstitutional: Clinton v. City of New York, CRS Report 98-690 (9-page PDF)
• Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998)

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Next: Chapter 8 – Additional Congressional Responsibilities and Procedures

Congressional Procedure