Resolution/Simple Resolution: Sentiment of one chamber on an issue, or a measure to carry out the administrative or procedural business of the chamber. Does not become law. Designated as H. Res. or S. Res.

This definition is from our Glossary of Legislative and Congressional Terms. Perfect reference tool of Congressional jargon and procedural terms. Learn how to translate words that are used every day on Capitol Hill. Our legislative glossary is based on the Glossary in the Congressional Deskbook, by Michael Koempel and Judy Schneider.

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The Borrowing Clause is one of Congress’ enumerated powers found in the Constitution of the United States, Article. I. Section. 8., clause 2:

(Clause 2 – Borrowing power)

[The Congress shall have Power] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

From the U.S. Senate web site:

Congress can borrow money through the issuance of bonds and other means. When it borrows money, the United States creates a binding obligation to repay the debt and cannot repudiate it.

photo credit: alancleaver_2000

You haven’t heard of the Bureau of the Public Debt before? We’re a small agency within the Department of the Treasury. Our customers are your neighbors, co-workers, and most likely you, too. You’re our customer if you’ve ever bought any type of Treasury security for yourself or, as millions have done in the case of savings bonds, as a gift for someone else.

Our job is to borrow the money needed to operate the federal government and to account for the resulting debt. In a nutshell, we borrow by selling Treasury bills, notes, and bonds, as well as U.S. Savings Bonds; we pay interest to investors; and, when the time comes to pay back the loans, we redeem investors’ securities. Every time we borrow or pay back money, it affects the outstanding debt of the United States.

Bureau of the Public Debt

More

• Clause 2. Borrowing Power – from Findlaw
• Clause 2. Borrowing Power – from Cornell’s Legal Information Institute
• United States public debt – from Wikipedia
• Balanced Budget Amendment – from Wikipedia
• Tax Foundation
• Citizens Against Government Waste
• National Taxpayers Union
• US Debt Clock.org
• Washington Watch

A free download of our Pocket Constitution is available on Scribd.

Free Copy of our Pocket Constitution: details on our web site.

Also see our FREE pocket edition of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.

The IRS is the foundation for all that our nation is capable of — and we’re depending on bright, capable citizens like you to achieve our goals.

From the IRS Jobs site.

The Taxing and Spending Clause is found in the Constitution of the United States, Article. I. Section. 8., clause 1:

(Clause 1 – Power to tax and spend)

[The Congress shall have Power] To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

photo credit: ARHiggins

From the U.S. Senate web site:

Section 8 begins the enumerated powers of the federal government delegated to Congress. The first is the power to tax and to spend the money raised by taxes, to provide for the nation’s defense and general welfare. This section was supplemented by the 16th amendment, which permitted Congress to levy an income tax.

By 1913, 36 States had ratified the 16th Amendment to the Constitution. In October, 1913, Congress passed a new income tax law with rates beginning at 1 percent and rising to 7 percent for taxpayers with income in excess of $500,000. Less than 1 percent of the population paid income tax at the time.

The federal, state, and local tax systems in the United States have been marked by significant changes over the years in response to changing circumstances and changes in the role of government. The types of taxes collected, their relative proportions, and the magnitudes of the revenues collected are all far different than they were 50 or 100 years ago. Some of these changes are traceable to specific historical events, such as a war or the passage of the 16th Amendment to the Constitution that granted the Congress the power to levy a tax on personal income. Other changes were more gradual, responding to changes in society, in our economy, and in the roles and responsibilities that government has taken unto itself.

For most of our nation’s history, individual taxpayers rarely had any significant contact with Federal tax authorities as most of the Federal government’s tax revenues were derived from excise taxes, tariffs, and customs duties. Before the Revolutionary War, the colonial government had only a limited need for revenue, while each of the colonies had greater responsibilities and thus greater revenue needs, which they met with different types of taxes. For example, the southern colonies primarily taxed imports and exports, the middle colonies at times imposed a property tax and a “head” or poll tax levied on each adult male, and the New England colonies raised revenue primarily through general real estate taxes, excises taxes, and taxes based on occupation.

England’s need for revenues to pay for its wars against France led it to impose a series of taxes on the American colonies. In 1765, the English Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which was the first tax imposed directly on the American colonies, and then Parliament imposed a tax on tea. Even though colonists were forced to pay these taxes, they lacked representation in the English Parliament. This led to the rallying cry of the American Revolution that “taxation without representation is tyranny” and established a persistent wariness regarding taxation as part of the American culture.

History of the U.S. Tax System, from the IRS.

More

• Clause 1. Power to Tax and Spend – from Findlaw
• Clause 1. Power to Tax and Spend – from Cornell’s Legal Information Institute
• Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 – from Wikipedia
• Taxing and Spending Clause, by William Lasser, at Answers.com
• “Spending Clause” Category on Volokh.com
• Tax Foundation
• Citizens Against Government Waste
• National Taxpayers Union
• Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
• Washington Watch

A free download of our Pocket Constitution is available on Scribd.

Free Copy of our Pocket Constitution: details on our web site.

Also see our FREE pocket edition of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.

Meeting with congressional staff or a member of Congress can be an extremely effective way to convey your message. If you are able to meet with a member of Congress or a congressional staffer, it is important to know what to expect when you visit. This will help you to feel more at ease during the meeting and be more prepared in order to have the best outcome possible.

First, make sure that you plan your visit carefully. Take the time to determine ahead of time which committee staff or Member of Congress you should meet with in order to achieve your goal. In addition, make an appointment. This is done by contacting the Scheduler in the Member’s office, explaining your purpose and who you represent if you are representing a firm or association. This makes it easier for the congressional staff to arrange your meeting when they know ahead of time what it is that you wish to discuss. Remember that it is often not possible to obtain a meeting at the last moment.

Be prompt and patient. Keep in mind that it is not unusual for Representatives and Senators and their staffers to run somewhat late or to have meetings interrupted. You must be flexible.

Bring a one-pager and information to the meeting that will support your position and that you can leave behind. It is best to us personal examples that demonstrate the benefits or impact associated with a particular issue.

You also want to demonstrate an association between your request and the interests of the Member’s constituency. Members of Congress want to represent the best interests of their state or district, and they usually want to be reelected. Try to be clear about how you or the group you represent can be of assistance to them. If it is appropriate to do so, ask for a commitment.

Make sure you are prepared to answer questions and provide any additional information if the Member or staffer should ask questions or express further interest. It is also appropriate to follow up the meeting with a thank you letter that will outline the different points that were covered during your meeting. And don’t forget to send any additional materials and information requested.

If you are visiting Capitol Hill as part of an organization’s National Advocacy Day, encourage your association leaders to provide our Pocket Guide to Advocacy on Capitol Hill to you and your colleagues.

For detailed information about the advocacy on Capitol Hill, see

• Pocket Guide to Advocacy on Capitol Hill, by Bradford Fitch
• Persuading Congress, by Joseph Gibson
• Our live course in Washington, DC, Strategies for Working with Congress
• Our Capitol Learning Audio Courses:
  • How to Organize a Capitol Hill Day
  • How to Work the Hill Like a Pro
  • Making the Most of a Site Visit with a Member of Congress
  • Strategies and Tactics That Will Help You Impact Congressional Action
  • Visiting Capitol Hill for First-Time Grassroots Advocates: An Introductory Course

Congress has the responsibility of drafting as well as debating and sending bills to the President to be signed into law. Legislative business is handled by the 100 Senators and 435 Representatives through Congressional sessions.

photo credit: lindsay.dee.bunny

Congress is mandated by the Constitution to convene a minimum of once per year (U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 4). Each Congress typically has two regular sessions (a first session and a second session), called Terms of Congress.

There are various types of sessions and either one or both chambers of Congress may meet during those sessions. Under the Constitution (Article I, Section 5), a majority is required to be present for the chambers to meet and conduct business.

In regular sessions the House and Senate are in normal operation. In a closed or executive session of either the House or the Senate, only the legislators will be present to discuss the most serious of matters; which might include the impeachment of the president, national security issues, etc. In a joint session of Congress both houses are present. This may occur during the State of the Union address or when the president appears before Congress for some other reason. The lame duck session takes place in the second session, after the November elections and prior to the January adjournment. The lame duck session includes members of Congress who have not been re-elected and will not return for the next Term of Congress.

A special session of Congress may be called for special circumstances.

Each Congress lasts for two years and is comprised of two sessions. Over the years, the dates of those sessions have changed; however, since 1934 the first session convenes on January 3rd of odd-numbered years and adjourns on January 3rd the following year. The second session runs from January 3rd of even-numbered years to January 2nd of odd-numbered years.

Congress takes breaks throughout the year, including a one month recess during most of August. Congress also typically recesses for national holidays.

There are four different types of adjournments. The most common type of adjournment will simply end the day, with a motion to do so. An adjournment for three days or less requires the adoption of a motion. For an adjournment of longer than three days, the consent of the other chamber is required along with the adoption of a concurrent resolution in both bodies. There is also an adjournment to end a session in Congress, Adjournment Sine Die. This type of adjournment requires the consent of both chambers.

For detailed information about the legislative process, see

• Congressional Deskbook: The Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Congress, by Michael L. Koempel and Judy Schneider
• Our live courses in Washington, DC:
  • Congress in a Nutshell: Understanding Congress
  • Congressional Dynamics and the Legislative Process
  • Advanced Legislative Strategies
  • Capitol Hill Workshop
• Our Capitol Learning Audio Courses:
  • Congress, the Legislative Process, and the Fundamentals of Lawmaking, A Nine Course Series
  • Congressional Committees and Party Leadership: Who Controls the Congressional Agenda
  • House Rules Committee: Gatekeeper to the Floor
  • Understanding the Path of Legislation

“How panhandlers use free credit cards“, by Jim Rankin, thestar.ca, August 28, 2010
“What would happen if, instead of spare change, you handed a person in need the means to shop for whatever they needed? What would they buy? Can you spare your credit card, sir?

In New York City, an advertising executive recently handed over her American Express Platinum Card to a homeless Manhattan man after he had asked her for change. The man, who had been without home after losing a job, used the card to buy $25 worth of deodorant, water and cigarettes. And then he returned the card.”

No visa required: Who has most freedom to travel?, Daily chart, The Economist, August 25, 2010

“I Like Glenn Beck Because He’s Fun to Watch,” by Tim Cavanaugh, Hit & Run, August 27, 2010

“Movie Review: Lebanon – The View From the Lens of an Israeli Tank’s Scope,” by A.O. Scott, The New York Times, August 5, 2010

Mark Twain on Copyright
“Remarks of Samuel Langhorne Clemens Before the Congressional Joint Committee on Patents, December, 1906 (Mark Twain on Copyright)”

Persuading Congress: Candid Advice for Executives
“Persuading Congress, by Joseph Gibson, is a very practical book, packed with wisdom and experience in a deceptively short and simple package.

This book will help you understand Congress. Written from the perspective of one who has helped put a lot of bills on the president’s desk and helped stop a lot more, this book explains in everyday terms why Congress behaves as it does. Then it shows you how you can best deploy whatever resources you have to move Congress in your direction.”

Understanding Congressional Budgeting and Appropriations, September 8, 2010

Strategies for Working with Congress: Effective Communication and Advocacy on Capitol Hill, September 10, 2010

Capitol Hill Workshop, September 22-24, 2010

There can be many reasons to make contact with a member of Congress. Not only might you want to discuss a policy decision or a specific piece of legislation that is being considered, but there are many other reasons that necessitate contact.

Most members of Congress have a “Constituent Services” section on their web pages for help with government agencies, flag requests, congressional internships, presidential greetings, tours of the Capitol, service academy appointments, and page appointments. For more information, see our “What’s the Deal With…?” page for answers to questions commonly asked by visitors to Washington, DC.

Making a specific request is one of the most common reasons for contacting a member of Congress. When making contact with a member of Congress or with a member’s staff, it is imperative that the reason for doing so be clearly and succinctly communicated. Members of Congress have significant demands placed upon their time, so succinctly communicating your reason for making contact will make it easier and faster to accomplish your goal.

State clearly what you want. For instance, you might request that they co-sponsor a bill, or you might request a hearing to be held on a particular issue. Regardless of your request, state your request clearly and concisely so there is no question regarding the nature of your request.

Another common reason for contacting a member of Congress is to thank them for contact that has already taken place. Polite protocol calls for sending a thank-you note following a meeting. For instance, if you have already had contact with the staff of a member of Congress to make a request, it is a good idea to send an email following up thanking them for their time. This is also a good opportunity to reiterate your request to ensure that it is not overlooked.

Members of Congress and their staff are inundated with requests on a daily basis. Following up with a thank-you is not only the polite thing to do, but it also keeps your name and concern at the top of the list.

Finally, you might wish to follow up regarding any questions that may have arisen during a meeting that was previously held. Even if you have previously sent a thank-you note, if subsequent issues have come up, you should not hesitate to make contact again, particularly if it is an ongoing matter. Following up can help to keep the lines of communication open between you and your member of Congress, and help you become established as a reliable constituent regarding the topic.

For more information, see

• “What’s the deal with contacting my Representative or Senators?”
• Our FAQ: “How to Contact Congress”
• How do I get an American flag that has flown over the U.S. Capitol?
• A Guide for Communicating with Congress

For detailed information about Congress and the legislative process, see

• Congressional Deskbook: The Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Congress, by Michael L. Koempel and Judy Schneider
• Our live courses in Washington, DC:
  • Congress in a Nutshell: Understanding Congress
  • Congressional Dynamics and the Legislative Process
  • Advanced Legislative Strategies
  • Capitol Hill Workshop
• Our Capitol Learning Audio Courses:
  • Congress, the Legislative Process, and the Fundamentals of Lawmaking, A Nine Course Series
  • Congressional Committees and Party Leadership: Who Controls the Congressional Agenda
  • House Rules Committee: Gatekeeper to the Floor
  • Understanding the Path of Legislation

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For over 30 years, TheCapitol.Net and its predecessor, Congressional Quarterly Executive Conferences, have been training professionals from government, military, business, and NGOs on the dynamics and operations of the legislative and executive branches and how to work with them.

Our training and publications include congressional operations, legislative and budget process, communication and advocacy, media and public relations, research, business etiquette, and more.

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See our Capability Statement.

For more information about custom, on-site training from TheCapitol.Net, see TCNCustom.com

Businesses, agencies and military organizations rely on TheCapitol.Net to keep their staff highly effective and aware in the dynamic Washington environment.

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Choosing custom training from TheCapitol.Net means you:

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Our customized course materials serve as an invaluable reference delivering ongoing value. Course materials can include the Congressional Deskbook, Media Relations Handbook, Real World Research Skills, Legislative Drafter’s Deskbook, Testifying Before Congress, Lobbying and Advocacy, Persuading Congress, and the Congressional Directory–among others.

Our expert faculty includes:

• Reporters and editors who know Congress inside and out
• Former Members of Congress
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The “commerce clause” is one of the most far-reaching grants of power to Congress.

From the U.S. Senate web site.

The Commerce Clause is found in the Constitution of the United States, Article. I. Section. 8., clause 3:

[The Congress shall have Power] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

More

• Commerce Clause – from Answers.com (compilation of articles with links)
• Commerce clause, with case law links – from Cornell’s Legal Information Institute
• Commerce Clause – from Wikipedia
• “Commerce clause” in Google News
• Constitution of the United States, Article. I. Section. 8.
• Commerce Clause category on the Constitutional Law Prof Blog

A free download of our Pocket Constitution is available on Scribd.

Free Copy of our Pocket Constitution: details on our web site.

Also see our FREE pocket edition of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.

Writing your Congressman or Congresswoman can be a great way to communicate your concerns regarding relevant issues. Today, most members of Congress prefer to hear from constituents through email due to the fact that it is faster, does not pose any security risks and is much easier to sort.

All members of Congress can be contacted through their web sites: House; Senate.

You can also contact your three Members of Congress by telephone; however, you should keep in mind that telephone calls are typically taken by a staff member and are not taken directly by your Representative or your Senators. When you telephone, you should ask to speak with the aide who handles the issue that is relevant to your concern. Make sure that you identify yourself as a constituent and tell the aide that you would like to leave a brief message. If you are calling to let the member know that you support or oppose a particular bill, be sure to mention the bill by name and give your reasons, briefly, for either supporting or opposing the bill. It is also a good idea to ask for your Senators’ or Representative’s position on the bill if you do not already have that information. You might also request a written response to your call.

If you choose to write to your Representative or Senators, begin by looking at their website and the ‘Contact’ page. This will usually connect you to an online form.

According to Congressional staffers you should include the following to ensure your message is as influential as possible; your name, address and zip code. This allows the staff to verify you as a constituent of the member of Congress. You should also reference specific legislation in your communication rather than simply a general reason for writing. (You can find bill numbers by using Thomas.)

Follow these tips when communicating with a member of Congress:

• Always be courteous and respectful. Never use threats.
• Be constructive rather than negative.
• Know your issue and be prepared to discuss it. Prior to writing make sure you have obtained information about the issue and do your homework to ensure you are knowledgeable about what you are discussing.
• Keep your comments factual, pertinent and brief. Do not try to cover more than one issue per communication.
• If you are writing a letter, restrict it to no more than two pages. Remember that elected officials hear from hundreds of people daily.
• Identify the subject within the first paragraph if you are writing a letter. Refer to the bill by the House or Senate bill number or title when possible.
• Do not use a form letter provided by any organization; use your own words to describe your concerns and proposed solutions.

For more information, see “What’s the deal with contacting my Representative or Senators?” and our FAQ: “How to Contact Congress.”

For detailed information about Congress and the legislative process, see

• Congressional Deskbook: The Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Congress, by Michael L. Koempel and Judy Schneider
• Our live courses in Washington, DC:
  • Congress in a Nutshell: Understanding Congress
  • Congressional Dynamics and the Legislative Process
  • Advanced Legislative Strategies
  • Capitol Hill Workshop
• Our Capitol Learning Audio Courses:
  • Congress, the Legislative Process, and the Fundamentals of Lawmaking, A Nine Course Series
  • Congressional Committees and Party Leadership: Who Controls the Congressional Agenda
  • House Rules Committee: Gatekeeper to the Floor
  • Understanding the Path of Legislation